INNOVA Research Journal, ISSN 2477-9024

Debilidades en los protocolos de votación por Internet centralizados y

descentralizados

Weaknesses in centralized and decentralized internet voting protocols

Ricardo Chica

Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí, Ecuador

PhD. Student Universitá di Pisa,Italia

Autor para correspondencia: r.chicacepeda@studenti.unipi.it

Fecha de recepción: 27 de Julio 2017 - Fecha de aceptación: 15 de Enero de 2018

Resumen

El presente documento analiza las debilidades de los protocolos relativos a los sistemas de votación

por Internet, ya sean centralizados o descentralizados, como una tecnología utilizada en muchos

países del mundo que puede aumentar significativamente el número de electores, ofrece

transparencia, entrega de resultados y reduce la costos de todo el proceso electoral, permitiendo

una forma auditable para el ciudadano y las entidades públicas. El uso de Sistemas de votación

electrónica remota (REV) había abierto una nueva vía para los servicios de gobierno electrónico,

brindando a la comunidad otras herramientas para fines electorales, y al mismo tiempo creó una

larga lista de desafíos de valores que han permitido el desarrollo de nuevos sistemas de votación

I, entre las comunidades que se centran en la investigación de diferentes maneras de minimizar los

riesgos de este proceso.

Palabras clave: elecciones; protocolos; descentralizados; centralizados; e-democracia; REV

Abstract

The present document analyzes the weaknesses of the protocols regarding internet voting systems,

either centralized or decentralized one, as a technology used for many countries around the world

that may significantly increase the numbers of electors, offers transparency, delivery of results

and reduces the costs of the whole electoral process, allowing an auditable way either for the

citizen and public entities. The use of Remote Electronic Voting Systems (REV), had been

opening a new way for e-government services, giving the community other tools for electoral

purposes, and at the same time had create a long list of securities challenges which have allowed

the development of new I-voting systems, among communities that focus on the research of

different ways to minimize the risks of this process.

Key words: elections; protocols; decentralized; centralized; e-democracy; REV

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Introduction

The constant growth and development of information technology in all fields of society

have enabled a substantial improvement in activities related to the electronic government and the

way in which the public sector connects with the citizens and improves its own services.

Voting is the basis of any democratic system, either to elect representatives, to take

decisions (referendum) or to reach a large-scale agreement. REV permits the voters to record a

vote without having to be physically present in a supervise polling station, like traditional

election do; instead of that, the citizens will have the possibility with the use of electronic

devices like personal computers or smartphones connected to the internet, to record and transmit

their votes during a specific time, set by the authorities of the election.

The daily activities, the geography and the disposition of the resources used for

traditional voting, make that in the majority of cases, the eligible citizens do not participate in

the elections, which is harmful to democracy and in some cases, affect the results when not

counting with the minimum number of participants, cases like Colombian referendum that was

made in 2016, to approved or deny the negotiation between the government and the guerillas

group known as FARC, to end a fifty years arm conflict had a 62% of abstention (Mundo), or in

2

016 the United Kingdom Brexit election, which decided if the country should remain or leave

the European Union, had more than 28% of abstention as well. (Results, 2016)

Most of the countries in the last decades have opted for government systems, where the

legal age citizens making use of the vote, elects its rulers to represent them before the different

instances of power (President, Congress, assembly, etc). Each nation has adopted its own

mechanisms that allow an optimal, safe, fast and verifiable electoral process, for that reason we

have seen the use of ballots, marking cards, color inks and electronic devices like DRE, among

others many mechanisms that have marked the history of our countries.

With the rise and massification of information and communication technologies, new

forms have been developed in recent years to improve electoral processes, including internet

voting, which has already been carried out in countries such as Estonia and Switzerland on a

large scale, and some North American and Latin American cities as Santa Catarina Brazil and

Santo Domingo de Los Colorados in Ecuador, as a pilot test.

This paper discusses the weaknesses in centralized and decentralized internet voting

protocols that will allow deepening in more robust security mechanisms for this type of

technology, which has grown significantly in the last decade and will undoubtedly make the

difference compared to traditional voting mechanisms. Also, analyze the cases of Estonia 2013

election and de pilot election carry out by the Washington D.C. District in 2010.

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Figure 1. Implementation degree of E- voting system around the world (Dirección de Régimen Jurídico, 2016)

I-Voting:

I-voting is a technology where eligible citizens can vote using electronic devices such a

laptop or smartphone, through internet connection, while ensuring privacy and integrity of the

results in a way to improve accessibility, as well as alternative method to traditional on-site

elections, without losing sight of the main fundamental objectives:



Ensure universal, free, equal, secret and direct vote.

Achieve greater citizen participation.

Ensure the transparency of the electoral process

There are two types of internet voting: On-site, which is conducted at controlled places,

where election officials can authenticate eligible voters and the electronic infrastructure that must

be used. The second type allows voters to transmit their votes from any internet connection to

which they have access using a computer or smartphone.

When casting votes, the system gives a unique digital identification number (PIN) to the

citizens that allow them to access the screens where the choice is made. Once the voter enters the

site he can select the candidate of his preference and send the choice instantly. Voting is

transmitted through a network of communications, either in a Centralized or decentralized

protocol, from the place where it has been issued up to a remote digital urn or central server.

Internet Protocols:

All the voting protocols tend to meet the same set of security requirements, the privacy of

all the voters is the principal security requirement, the result must be totally secret until the

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election is completed and verifiable. That provides the user the confidence that their votes had

been treated correctly.

Table 1. General Security requirement for electronic voting protocols

Security Requirement

Privacy

Authentication of voter’s

Description

Is not revealed to anyone the way an eligible user voted

To ensure that only eligible voters can vote and only one vote per person is

counted.

Accuracy

Secrecy of intermediate

Valid votes cannot be removed or manipulated. No invalid votes can be added

All results are kept secret until the election is completed.

results

No-coercion

Verifiability

The system must not enable the selling of votes or the coercion of voters.

Voters must be assured of the correct treatment of their votes, and have means to

irrefutably prove of any fraud.

Features and functionalities of remote electronic voting system:

For a basic understanding of what can be achieved with electronic voting systems, it is

useful to consider the security and the end-user functionalities that these systems can offer for

both voters and election officials. (Paper, 2011)

Regarding legal principles, the system most meet the following requirements:

-

Universal: The voting system must be available for all eligible voters, without requiring

special knowledge, and be easy to navigate, including graphics and sounds mechanism

for people with disabilities.

-

Availability: Must never enter an undefined state, and have a backup mechanism to

recover the system in case of an emergency.

Free: Voters should make their choice without any interference or influence of anybody,

as well they must not be paid or get paid for it.

Equal: Voters should authenticate themselves to prevent unauthorized access, and each

person can only vote once, each ballot is counted exactly once within the result. All

ballots have the same influence on the result.

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Figure. 2: I-voting system overview

Basic software components:



I-voting client application. This user-friendly application allows voters to cast i-votes from a

wide range of platforms. It can be customized to support any kind of election.

I-voting system. It is comprised of a group of protected servers that collect, store, tabulate

votes and create reports for election management. All these servers are controlled by the

election commission.



I-voting verification application. Because every voter should be certain that their vote is

counted as intended, this mobile app allows voters to confirm that their vote was registered

appropriately. (Smartmatic, Estonia Election)

Centralized Protocol:

The most common electronic schemes in centralized protocol required the uses of a very

trusted counting server as a third party, which makes the security of this third party extremely

critical for the voting system.

The internet architecture for this protocol uses three layers (Web–Application-Database)

on which the system executes an "applet” in the browser and establishes a secure connection

(HTTPS) for authentication, selection of options and registration of the vote.

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All the processing is controlled in a central location using a server to collect and save the

ballots by a Serie of steps described in the following graphic. (OEA, 2014)

Figure 4. Centralized Voting System

Decentralized Protocol:

One of the newest cryptographic decentralized voting protocols is the blockchain, which

is a distributed database that maintains a continuously-growing list of

ordered records called blocks. Each block contains a timestamp and a link to a previous block, by

design blockchain are inherently resistant to modification of the data, once recorded, and the data

in a block cannot be altered retroactively.

A blockchain is an audit trail for a database which is managed by a network of computers

where no single computer is responsible for storing or maintaining the database, and any

computer may enter or leave this network at any time without jeopardizing the integrity or

availability of the database. Any computer can rebuild the database from scratch by downloading

the blockchain and processing the audit trail.

The most obvious way to ensure that no single entity can manipulate the database is to

make the database public, and allow anyone to store a redundant copy of the database. In this

way, everyone can be assured that their copy of the database is intact, simply by comparing it

with everyone else’s. (Followmyvote, n.d.)

Taking in count that in a decentralized protocol there are no authorities or trusted parties

–

all voters operate independently with equal mutual suspicion. All traffic is performed on

regular communication channels. The protocol is also accurate in that cheating is discovered

immediately and in some cases, the perpetrator may be identified.

The system used in DP based on blockchain offers a transparent public ledger which is a

collection of accounting entries that is not centrally controlled by and individual or organization

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and the ledger entries only get confirmed as correct and officially enter into the ledger once they

have been mathematically verified by the blockchain. At the same time, the ledger is completely

public.

The most prominent concern about an implementation of Blockchain voting system is the

lack of experimental evidence that such a system could hold up in a large-scale use, for example

in a national election. Another important issue is regarding the use of cryptographic key in which

a verified voter can cast their ballot, and in some cases, can be difficult to deal with this aspect as

well making the attackers to compromising the voter’s key instead of the system. (Francesca

Caiazzo, 2016)

Blockchain uses security methods like asymmetric cryptographic keys, which are two

types of keys, the first one is the public key that may be disseminated widely, and private key

which is known only by the owner, this accomplishes two functions: Authentication when the

public key is used to verify that a holder of the paired private cast the vote, and encryption,

whereby only the holder of the paired private key can decrypt the message encrypted with the

public key.

When a legitimate user cast his vote, what the system does is broadcast a transaction to

all the nodes that compromise the peer–to–peer network.

Figure 5. Blockchain Working Scheme. (Blockgeeks, n.d.)

Giving that a variety of users are broadcasting the transaction to the network, the nodes

must agree on exactly which transaction was broadcast and the order in which these transactions

happened. This will result in a single, global ledger for the system.

So, at any given point, all the nodes in the peer‐ to‐ peer network have a ledger

consisting of a sequence of blocks, each containing a list of transactions, that they’ve reached

consensus on (Arvind Narayanan, 2016)

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Figure 6. Centralized and decentralized network. (https://followmyvote.com/, n.d.)

Security Risk Analysis:

Election

Authentication

-

There is not a physical probe that the person voting is really the

authorized voter.

-

Possibility of stolen voter packages or identification cards

Misuse of elector's ID card and personal information voting by others

without the knowledge of the elector

Unable access to election website

Network Saturation

Internet signal cut off

Dissociation of the instructions for user verification

and voting options

Voting

-

Phishing

Malware

Internet signal cut off

Attacking the web application

Validation

Storage

Hacker

Manipulation of the algorithm of the voting counting program in the

server (The company that installed can decide also who win)

Replacement of the voting counting software

Remove or replace de cryptography parameters

-

Decryption

Threats In Centralized And Decentralized Protocol:

Threat

Centralized Protocol

Decentralized Protocol

Denial of Service

Common

Uncommon

Trojan horse spyware to change or monitor votes

High probability

Common

High probability

Low probability

Common

Low probability

Automated vote buying

Insider attack on voting system

Virus-specific to Internet voting system

Spoofing

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Vulnerabilities In Centralized And Decentralized Protocol:

Centralized Protocol

Decentralized Protocol

Threats Vulnerabilities

Threats

Vulnerabilities

Electronic device

as client PC or

smartphone can be

Excessive

Excessive privileges.

located in voter´s privileges

home, public or

Offline

Messaging

Bootstrapping

Keystroke

Confusing or

information for voters.

unclear

commercial places.

Confusing

unclear

or

Voter Station

These

devices information

for Logging

could be infected voters

with malware.

Decentralized protocol does not use a single

DDoS, hacking

Vote Collection

Server

Backdoor,

Trojan

Hacking, worms

Storage media server

horses, Exposure

Misconfigured

database

Malware.

Pharming.

Phishing

Remote denial of service.

The issue is triggered during

the handling of a specially

crafted signature alert. This

may allow a remote attacker

to cause a consumption of

CPU or RAM resources,

which will crash the system

Malware

Phishing

Spyware

Trojan horses

Time jacking

Administration

System

Ransomware,

Limited security Trojan horses.

expertise

WIFI

eavesdropping.

spyware

Sybil attack

Time jacking

TCP

TCP connections

attack, Volumetric failure

Attacks

DNS Reflection

Break

Connection

connections

attack

Connection failure

Overflow condition.

The program fails to

Transmition

Data

Break

Cryptography

Volumetric

Attacks

Cryptography

properly

sanitize

user-

Consensus

DNS

Reflection

supplied input resulting in an

integer overflow.

Break

Cryptography

Comparative Specifications Between Centralized And Decentralized Protocols:

Main Issues

Centralized

Decentralized

Protocol

Voter can verify if vote is cast as intended

Voter can verify if the casting vote is recorded

Voter can verify if votes are tallied as recorded

Assurance on tallying integrity when TAs are all

corrupted



Suitable election (Small and large scale)

Faster counting and tabulation



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Greater accuracy in results

Comfort for voters

Increased participation in electoral process

Costs

Prevention of fraud

Greater accessibility

Communication in several languages

Flexibility to make changes, handling deadlines

Risk of manipulation by external agents

Risk of manipulation by agents

Internal



Infrastructure

Supplier dependency



Estonia Internet Voting System Weaknesses:

The 2013 Estonia local election used REV and there were identified many potential

security risks, like malware on the client side machine, that monitors the user while placing his

vote and then later changing the vote to a different candidate. Another weakness was regarding

the HTTP. If a client sends a request containing unexpected header fields, the server logs the

field names to disk, by sending many specially crafted requests containing fields with very long

names, an attacker can exhaust the server’s log storage, after which it will fail to accept any new

votes.

Also, there was a vulnerability with the shell-injection in a server-side user interface that

was intended to allow operators to perform pre-determined administrative tasks. The

vulnerability would allow such an operator to execute arbitrary shell commands on the election

servers with root privileges.

The encrypted ballots are separated from the signatures and copied to an isolated machine

before being decrypted and counted, an attacker who can smuggle this information out through a

covert channel can compromise every voter’s secret ballot.

The counting server malware can sort the encrypted ballots and leak the voter choices

corresponding to each as a sequence of integers in the same order.

Another possible risk has infected the server through malware being placed on the DVD´s

used to set up the servers and transfer the votes. (Andrew Barnes)

Estonia’s system also fails to provide compelling proof that election outcomes were

correct. The tabulation process at the end of the election was also concerning, because after the

votes were decrypted on the counting server, an unknown technical glitch prevented workers

from writing the official counts and log files on a server DVD, and transfer them to a computer

where they sign the results officially, instead the electoral authorities decided to use a regular

personal USB to transfer those files, that might add a multiple potential attack vectors. (Drew

Springall)

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Figure 8. Estonian Digital Voting System (Source: R. Verbij. "Dutch e-voting opportunities." Master thesis,

University of Twente, 2014)

Washington D.C. Internet Voting System Weaknesses:

In 2010, Washington, D.C. developed and internet voting Pilot project that was intended

to allow voters to cast their ballot using a website, prior to election the district made a public trial

and invited to test the system or attempt to compromise its security, a team of student from the

University of Michigan with Professor Alex Haldeman were able to break into the system and

they found the next Vulnerabilities: (Scott Wolchok, Attacking The Washington, D.C. Internet

Voting System, 2012)

-

Web Application: The application was open source and it was possible for the team to

hack the voter login, ballot, database communication, and network activity.

Shell-injection vulnerability. Was located in the code for encrypting voted ballots

uploaded by users.

Network Infrastructure: Using Nmap’s OS it was possible for the team to access the

router, the gateway and the network webcams and the terminal server.

Stealing Secrets: Retrieved several cryptographic secrets from the application server that

includes the public key used for encrypting ballots, which allows attackers to substitute

arbitrary ballots in place of actual cast ballots.

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Figure 9. Network Architecture – Washington D.C. Internet Voting System (Scott Wolchok, Attacking The

Washington, D.C. Internet Voting System, 2012)

Challenges Of Internet Voting Protocols.



Either for centralized or decentralize protocols, the identification of eligible voters is a

great challenge, or it’s been solved using a unique voter id and digital signatures as well

public and private keys. However, if the voter information is stolen, that person can place

a legitim vote in that voter’s name.



The insecurity of the user’s device that could record a voter’s private key and pin, and

then submits unauthorized votes in the client’s name.

In centralized protocol's the Vote Collection Server (VFS), and the vote counting

machine presents the most attractive targets for adversaries since they must be connected

to the internet and be exposed from all over the world.



Bugs in software either client or server side, that might expose voter’s ballots to the

public and violate the secrecy.

Undetectability of attacks, in 2010 attack on Washington D.C system, researchers had

full access to the central server for many days, before official discover their presence.

(Wolchok S, 2012)



Raise consciousness in the community about the benefits and comfort of the internet use

for electoral purposes, mainly to those related to security issues, ease of access and

results delivery in less time than traditional ways.

Future Perspective Of IVP.

The most important gap found in traditional protocols system are those especially

regarding security issues, and can be minimized by the use of the Blockchain technology, which

had shown us the many uses like Cryptocurrency as the Bitcoin or Ethereum, where this kind of

technology gives many benefits.

1

. Disintermediation and trustless Exchange: Two or more parties can make and

exchange without the oversight or intermediation of a third party, reducing the

counterparty risk, and generating more trust to those involved.

For electoral purposes, this technology will help the voters to secure cast their votes and

let everybody in the network know it, and will not need any other entity to validate it.

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1

2

.

Empowered users: Users control of all their information and transaction

High-quality data: Blockchain data is complete, consistent, timely, accurate, and

widely available.

3

4

5

.

Durability, reliability, and longevity: Due to the decentralized networks, blockchain

does not have a central point of failure and is better able to withstand malicious attacks.

Process integrity: Users can trust that transactions will be executed exactly as the

protocol commands removing the need for a trusted third party.

Transparency and immutability: Changes to public Blockchains are publicly viewable

by all parties creating transparency, and all transactions are immutable, meaning they

cannot be altered or deleted.

6

7

.

Ecosystem simplification: With all transactions being added to a single public ledger, it

reduces the clutter and complications of multiple ledgers.

Faster transactions: Traditional transactions can potentially take days for clearing and

final settlement, especially. Blockchain transactions can reduce transaction times to

minutes and are processed 24/7.

8

.

Lower transaction costs: By eliminating third party intermediaries and overhead costs

for exchanging assets, blockchains have the potential to greatly reduce transaction fees.

(Deloitte)

In a constantly growing society, the globalization and a strong democracy are the keys for

an accurately use of Information technology and at the same time can lead us to better results on

electoral process. Governments most implement new mechanism that increases the participation

of electoral users, given results in less amount of time, as well offering to society security

measures that guaranty those results.

Conclusions

Since decentralized protocol, do not share a single copy in a specific server of the

information, then there is no single entity that can manipulate the database, that allows the voters

to store a redundant copy of this database and everyone can be assuring that their copy is intact

by just comparing it to everyone else´s.

In a DP, the nodes in the network use consensus mechanism, this might involve

significant back-and-forth communication and/or deal with forks and their consequent rollbacks.

While it's true that centralized protocols must also contend with conflicting and aborted

transactions, these are far less likely where transactions are processed in a single location.

Centralized Protocol process transactions once, in a decentralized one those must be

processed independently by every node in the network, making that more work must be done for

the same result.

In CP two parties can make an exchange without the oversight or intermediation of a

third party, strongly reducing or even eliminating counterparty risk.

With all transactions being added to a single public ledger, it reduces the clutter and

complications of multiple ledgers.

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In CP, a single small mistake during the configuration or implementation of the voting

server or its network infrastructure can compromise the legitimacy of the entire election

By eliminating third party intermediaries and overhead costs for exchanging assets, DP

has the potential to greatly reduce transaction fees.

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VIV

Results,

E.

R.

(2016).

Electoral

Commission.

Obtenido

de

http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/find-information-by-subject/elections-and-

referendums/past-elections-and-referendums/eu-referendum/electorate-and-count-

information

Scott Wolchok, E. W. (2012). Attacking the Washington, D.C. Internet Voting System. Obtenido

de https://jhalderm.com: https://jhalderm.com/pub/papers/dcvoting-fc12.pdf

Scott Wolchok, E. W. (02 de 2012). Attacking The Washington, D.C. Internet Voting System.

Obtenido de https://jhalderm.com/pub/papers/dcvoting-fc12.pdf

Smartmatic. Smartmatic.com:

(s.f.).

Estonia

Election.

Obtenido

de

http://www.smartmatic.com/uploads/tx_news/CS_Estonia_elections_2014_2015.pdf

Revista de la Universidad Internacional del Ecuador. URL: https://www.uide.edu.ec/

69

INNOVA Research Journal 2018, Vol 3, No. 1, pp. 55-70

Smartmatic. (s.f.). Estonia Elections 2014 - 2015: Technology Case Studie . Obtenido de

Smartmatic.com:

http://www.smartmatic.com/case-studies/article/estonian-elections-

2

004-2015-technology/

Technologies, E. V. (s.f.). Electronic Votes Pros and Contra. Obtenido de

http://www.bravenewballot.org/

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, I. (2002). Electronic Voting Protocols and Schemes.

Obtenido de http://www.cs.huji.ac.il/~ns/Voting2.pdf

Volkamer, A. A. (2007). springer.com. Obtenido de https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-

3

-540-77493-8

Wikipedia. (s.f.). Wikipedia. Obtenido de https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockchain_(database)

Wolchok S, W. E. (2012). Attacking the Washington, D.C. Internet Voting System. Obtenido de

https://paperpile.com/c/XmUfWx/e6X3

Revista de la Universidad Internacional del Ecuador. URL: https://www.uide.edu.ec/

70