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Theories, methods, and concepts. There are theories, methods, and concepts that are
presented implicitly or explicitly in Pedro’s second language learning. The first stage of his
learning was in his home country. His learning was characterized by the behaviorist theory,
which is a “psychological theory that all learning, whether verbal or non-verbal, takes place
through the establishment of habits, when learners imitate and repeat the language they hear in
their surrounding environment and are positively reinforced for doing so” (Lightbown & Spada,
2
013, p. 214).
There were three methods that emphasize his English learning in school and university.
Grammar Translations, Audiolingual Method, and Total Physical Response. As Ellis and
Shintani (2013) state, Grammar Translation Method “is a traditional language approach
involving the presentation of grammatical rules, the study of a list of vocabulary, and translation
exercises. It emphasizes reading rather than the ability to communicate in a language” (p.338).
Lightbown and Spada (2013) also offer a definition for Grammar Translation as “an approach to
second language teaching characterized by the explicit teaching of grammar rules and the use of
translation exercises”(p.218). This teaching method was used in Pedro’s instruction. He used to
memorize list of verbs in present, past, and past participle. He was tested on the translation of the
verb in Spanish and English. From what he remembered, the teachers used to teach the classes in
Spanish and expect their students to speak English, which the researchers personally think does
not make sense.
Regarding Audiolingual Method, Ellis and Shintani (2013) define it as a “method of
foreign or second language teaching based on behaviorist learning theory. It emphasizes the use
of dialogues and drills and avoidance of the use of the L1 to develop correct L2 habits” (p. 344).
Pedro was exposed to different activities using Audiolingual Method; he had to repeat many
drills and memorize them. The practice that he had was only from lines and dialogues that came
from grammar books. Lightbown and Spada (2013) also indicate that this approach is “based on
behaviorist theory of learning and on structural linguistics, especially in the contrastive analysis
hypothesis. This instructional approach emphasizes the formation of habits through the
repetition, practice, and memorization of sentence patterns in isolation” (p. 213). From the
dialogues Pedro learned in school, he was not able to carry a simple conversation because the
dialogues he had to memorize were out of context and were not meaningful for him; in other
words, there was no meaning learning or cognitive process.
Pedro also learned using Total Physical Response, which “involves the teacher giving
commands and the students responding by performing actions. It is based on a structural syllabus
as the commands are designed to expose learners to different grammatical structures” (Ellis &
Shintani, 2013, p. 345). Pedro remembers that in elementary school his teachers used to teach
him using this method. They taught students different commands, which they had to follow such
as “sit down,” “sand up,” “open your book on page,” “point to,” and “repeat after me.”
Pedro thinks that to learn English, the teacher needs to know the students first language.
He also considers that grammar translation is essential in specific aspects. He believes that when
trying to understand English structures, the teacher should explain in a prescriptive form. The
researchers believe these approaches could have helped Pedro if they were used with other
methods that helped him also develop his productive skills. What he learned with Grammar
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